The Unification of Germany and Italy
From Revolution to Realpolitik
After the failed Revolutions of 1848, many European nationalists began to change their approach. Instead of relying on mass protests, they focused on strategy, alliances, and war. The dream of uniting Italy and Germany into strong nation-states didn’t disappear—it evolved. By the 1870s, both countries had been unified, reshaping Europe’s political landscape. Nationalism was still the driving force, but now it was used by powerful leaders who knew how to turn it into action. These unifications would not only fulfill nationalist hopes—they would also shift the balance of power in Europe.
Italy: A Patchwork Becomes a Nation
In the mid-1800s, Italy was divided into many small states. Some were controlled by Austria, while others were ruled by local monarchs. The movement to unite Italy was known as the Risorgimento, or “resurgence.” One of its most famous leaders was Giuseppe Garibaldi, a soldier and nationalist. Garibaldi led a volunteer army known as the Red Shirts to conquer southern Italy in the 1860s. He gave his victories to King Victor Emmanuel II, who ruled the northern kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia. Through both military campaigns and political agreements, Italy was unified in 1871—with Rome as its capital. Although challenges remained, Italy now stood as a single kingdom on the European map.
Germany: Bismarck’s Path to Power
In the German states, unification was led by Otto von Bismarck, the prime minister of Prussia. Bismarck believed in realpolitik—a strategy based on practical goals and power, not ideals. He didn’t rely on protests or speeches. Instead, he used war and diplomacy to bring German-speaking people together under Prussian control. Bismarck first led Prussia into war with Denmark (1864), then with Austria (1866), and finally with France in the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871). These conflicts united the German states around a common enemy. After defeating France, the German Empire was declared in 1871 in the Palace of Versailles. The new Germany was powerful, industrial, and centrally located in Europe.
Shifting the Balance of Power
The unifications of Germany and Italy changed Europe’s political structure. Germany, in particular, disrupted the balance of power that had been maintained since the Congress of Vienna in 1815. It now challenged Britain and France as a dominant force on the continent. The defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian War weakened French influence, while Germany’s growing strength worried other countries. Alliances began to form in response, including the Franco-Russian Alliance in 1894. Tensions between the great powers increased, laying the groundwork for future rivalries—and eventually World War I.
Italy’s unification had a smaller impact but still contributed to the decline of older empires like Austria and the Ottoman Empire. Nationalism was reshaping borders and creating new kinds of competition among European nations.
A New Europe
By the late 1800s, the map of Europe looked very different from what it had been in 1848. Nationalist leaders like Bismarck and Garibaldi had achieved what earlier revolutionaries could not. But with new nations came new rivalries—and a more unstable balance of power.