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The Industrial Revolution in Europe

New Machines, New Power

The Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the late 1700s and soon spread across Europe. It marked a major turning point in how goods were made, work was organized, and societies functioned. At the heart of this change were new technological inventions and sources of power.

     A strange-looking device whose size cannot be determined from the picture, since it stands alone. It consists of two brick cylinders side by side, connected by pipes to each other and to two oval pumps or containers.

Inventor: Thomas Savery. Image c. 1698, artist unknown. Institute of Human Thermodynamics and IoHT Publishing Ltd. Public domain via Wikimedia Commons. 
The Savery steam engine, the first commercially successful steam engine, 1698
 

The invention of the steam engine, powered by coal, transformed industries and transportation. Machines could now operate faster and more efficiently than human or animal labor. Steam engines powered spinning machines in textile mills, pumped water from mines, and drove trains along newly built railroads. These innovations helped goods move more quickly and cheaply than ever before.

The Factory System and Urban Life

One of the biggest changes during the Industrial Revolution was the rise of the factory system. Instead of working at home or in small workshops, many people now worked in large buildings with machines. Factories allowed owners to produce large amounts of goods in one place, often using unskilled labor.

    Cromford Mill, a 1771 British cotton mill, as it is today


Architect/ builder: Richard Arkwright. 1771. Derbyshire, England, UK. Photo by chevin, 2009. “I, the copyright holder of this work, release this work into the public domain. This applies worldwide..” Via Wikimedia Commons. 
Cromford Mill, a 1771 British cotton mill, as it is today
 

As factories grew, so did cities. People moved from rural areas to towns in search of work. This shift, called urbanization, created overcrowded neighborhoods, pollution, and new social challenges. In cities like Manchester, Leeds, and Berlin, smoke from coal-powered factories filled the air, and working-class families often lived in cramped housing with poor sanitation.

Working Conditions and Labor Response

While industrialization created wealth and jobs, the working conditions were often harsh. Factory workers, including women and children, worked long hours—sometimes 12 to 16 hours a day—for low wages. Many jobs were dangerous, especially in coal mines and textile mills, where injuries were common and safety standards were limited or nonexistent. In response to these conditions, workers began to organize. Early labor unions formed to demand better wages, shorter hours, and safer workplaces. Though these movements faced resistance at first, they eventually helped create new laws to protect workers and improve conditions. Over time, workers gained more rights, and governments began to regulate factory labor.

    An early 20th century photo of an old-fashioned factory with a wood floor and unsafe-looking hand-operated machines. A line of teenage girls stands at the machines; the one nearest the viewer holds a hammer in one hand. Wooden melon baskets are stacked behind the workers. A barrel full of long wooden slats also stands nearby.

Photographer: Lewis Hine (1874-1940). October 1908. National Archives at College Park. Public domain via Wikimedia Commons. 
Female factory workers making melon baskets, 1908
 

Transforming Economies and Societies

The Industrial Revolution transformed European economies from mostly farming-based systems into ones focused on manufacturing and industry. Countries like Britain, France, and Germany built railroads, expanded trade networks, and grew wealthy from factory-produced goods. At the same time, society changed. A new middle class of factory owners, merchants, and professionals gained power and influence. Meanwhile, working-class communities developed new ways to organize and push for reform. Some people supported ideas like socialism, which called for more equal distribution of wealth and better treatment of workers. Scientific research also advanced during this time, with new discoveries in chemistry, engineering, and medicine. These developments helped support industrial growth and improve daily life—but also raised questions about who benefited most from progress.

A Lasting Impact

The Industrial Revolution reshaped nearly every part of European life. It brought innovation, growth, and new opportunities, but also hardship, inequality, and struggle. Its effects can still be seen today in the way modern economies function, how cities are organized, and how people think about work, wealth, and progress.


Source: The Industrial Revolution in Europe
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