In the second half of the 1800s, thousands of Chinese immigrants came to the United States, especially to the West Coast. Many hoped to earn money to support their families or escape poverty and war back home. Their labor became essential to the growth of the American economy—but as they built railroads, worked in mines, and opened businesses, they also faced growing hostility and racism. Over time, laws and violent attacks began to target Chinese communities. These efforts would shape immigration policy for decades and leave a lasting mark on U.S. history.
Labor and Economic Contributions
Chinese immigrants played a central role in developing the American West. In the 1860s, many worked for the Central Pacific Railroad, helping to build the western portion of the Transcontinental Railroad. The work was extremely dangerous—workers blasted through mountains, laid track across deserts, and faced freezing winters and summer heat. Thousands of Chinese laborers made this construction possible, often for lower wages than white workers.
In addition to railroad work, Chinese immigrants also contributed to mining, farming, and small business. They ran laundries, restaurants, and grocery stores in growing towns and cities. Many worked as contract laborers, hired by companies to complete large projects for fixed wages. These contributions helped fuel the economic expansion of the United States, even as Chinese workers were often denied credit, citizenship, or equal pay.
Growing Hostility
As the economy changed in the late 1800s, Chinese immigrants became targets of public anger. White workers who lost jobs or faced lower wages blamed Chinese laborers, accusing them of “stealing jobs” or “refusing to assimilate.” These ideas were shaped by racism, fear of economic competition, and stereotypes that painted Chinese people as permanently foreign and untrustworthy.
Anti-Chinese political movements grew stronger, especially in California. Newspapers and politicians used hateful language to build support for exclusion. The idea that Chinese workers were a threat to American values became a common argument—even though many had lived and worked in the U.S. for decades.
Violence and the Rock Springs Massacre
In some places, anti-Chinese sentiment turned violent. One of the most deadly examples was the Rock Springs Massacre in 1885, in Wyoming Territory. White miners, angry over wage disputes, attacked a group of Chinese workers. At least 28 Chinese people were killed, dozens were wounded, and Chinese homes and businesses were burned to the ground. No one was punished for the violence.
This was not an isolated event. Chinese communities across the West faced harassment, forced removals, and mob violence. In many cases, local authorities did little to protect them—and sometimes encouraged the attacks.
The Chinese Exclusion Act
In 1882, Congress passed the Chinese Exclusion Act, which banned nearly all immigration from China and made it nearly impossible for Chinese workers already in the U.S. to become citizens. It was the first major federal law to target a specific nationality for exclusion. The act was supposed to last for 10 years but was renewed and expanded several times. It stayed in effect until 1943. During that time, Chinese families were separated, businesses were disrupted, and Chinese people had to carry special documents or risk being deported.
The law reflected a growing national movement to limit immigration—not just from China, but from many non-European countries. It also influenced later laws that restricted immigrants from other parts of Asia and Eastern Europe.
The Burlingame Treaty and Shifting U.S. Goals
Before the Exclusion Act, the U.S. had actually signed the Burlingame Treaty with China in 1868. This treaty encouraged friendship and trade between the two countries and allowed free immigration of Chinese citizens. But as public attitudes changed, the U.S. backed away from this agreement and began to focus more on protecting its labor market and national identity.
At the same time, the U.S. was expanding its involvement in Asia and the Pacific through trade, missionary work, and military influence. This contradiction—welcoming markets abroad while rejecting immigrants at home—shows how U.S. goals were shaped by both opportunity and prejudice.
Endurance and Community
Despite exclusion and violence, Chinese Americans found ways to survive and support one another. They formed tight-knit communities called Chinatowns, where they created mutual aid societies, published newspapers, and celebrated cultural traditions. Some took legal action to challenge discrimination, while others continued working and building businesses in the face of hostility.
Their resilience helped preserve Chinese identity and created space for future generations to claim their place in American society.