Religion, Society, and Culture in Iraq and Arabia

Religion has influenced societies in Iraq and the Arabian Peninsula for centuries. It can shape holidays, architecture, family traditions, art, charitable practices, laws, and the rhythms of everyday life. At the same time, religion is only one part of a person's identity. People who belong to the same religion may practice their faith differently, follow different traditions, or make different choices about how religion fits into their daily lives.

Islam is the religion of most citizens across Iraq and the Arabian Peninsula, but the region is not religiously uniform. Different branches of Islam are present, and Christian, Yazidi, Mandaean, Hindu, Buddhist, Sikh, Jewish, Bahá'í, and other communities are also part of the region's past or present.

Islam began on the Arabian Peninsula in the 600s C.E. Muslims believe that the Prophet Muhammad received revelations from God that were later recorded in the Quran, Islam's sacred text. From Arabia, Islam spread into Iraq and across a much larger area through a combination of migration, trade, political expansion, teaching, and conversion.

Two of Islam's holiest cities, Mecca and Medina, are in present-day Saudi Arabia. Muslims from around the world travel to Mecca for the Hajj, a pilgrimage that Muslims who are physically and financially able are expected to make once in their lifetime. This makes the Arabian Peninsula important to Muslims far beyond the region itself.

Islam also has important historical centers in Iraq. The cities of Najaf and Karbala are especially sacred to many Shia Muslims and attract pilgrims from around the world.

Muslims do not all belong to the same religious tradition. The two largest branches are Sunni Islam and Shia Islam. Their origins are connected to disagreements in the early Muslim community about leadership after the death of Muhammad.

Today, both Sunni and Shia Muslims live across the region. Iraq has large Shia and Sunni Muslim communities. Bahrain also has both communities, with a Shia majority among its citizen population. Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen also include Muslims from different traditions.

Oman has another important Islamic tradition called Ibadi Islam. Ibadis are neither Sunni nor Shia, although they share many beliefs and practices with other Muslims.

These labels describe religious traditions, but they should not be used to assume what an individual person believes or how that person behaves. Religious identity can interact with family, ethnicity, nationality, politics, and local customs in different ways.

For many Muslims, religious practices are part of the rhythm of daily and yearly life. Muslims may pray five times each day, attend a mosque, give to charity, and follow religious teachings about food and behavior. How closely people follow particular practices varies from person to person.

The month of Ramadan is especially important. During Ramadan, many Muslims fast from dawn until sunset. Families and communities may gather in the evening to break the fast together. The celebration of Eid al-Fitr marks the end of Ramadan. Another major celebration, Eid al-Adha, occurs during the season of the Hajj.

These observances can influence school schedules, working hours, shopping, travel, and community events. Friday also has special importance as a day for communal prayer, although workweek schedules and practices differ among countries.

Islamic traditions can also be seen in architecture, calligraphy, literature, music, and charitable organizations. Mosques range from neighborhood buildings to large structures that have become important landmarks.

Religion and government are connected in different ways across the region.

Several countries of the Arabian Peninsula are monarchies in which Islam has an official role in the state. Islamic principles may influence laws concerning areas such as marriage, inheritance, or family life. The exact relationship between religion and law differs from one country to another.

Iraq is a federal parliamentary republic. Its constitution recognizes Islam as the official religion and an important source of legislation while also recognizing religious rights for several communities.

This variation is important. Saying that a country is predominantly Muslim does not tell us everything about its government or legal system. Countries with Muslim-majority populations can organize political institutions and laws differently.

Christianity has a long history in the region. Christian communities existed in Iraq and Arabia centuries before the rise of Islam.

Iraq has been home to several Christian traditions, including Chaldean Catholic, Assyrian, Syriac, and Armenian Christian communities. Many Iraqi Christians have left the country during periods of war, persecution, and instability, but Christian communities remain part of Iraqi society and history.

Iraq is also home to Yazidis, whose religion has ancient roots and incorporates its own distinctive beliefs and traditions. Many Yazidis live in northern Iraq. The community experienced severe persecution and violence from the Islamic State beginning in 2014.

The Mandaeans are another small religious community with deep historical connections to Iraq. Their religion places particular importance on flowing water in religious ceremonies.

Jewish communities also have an important place in the region's history. Iraq once had one of the world's oldest Jewish communities, with roots stretching back more than two thousand years. Most Iraqi Jews left the country during the 1900s, but Jewish history remains part of Iraq's cultural heritage.

Modern migration has added another layer to the region's religious diversity.

Millions of people from South Asia, Southeast Asia, Africa, and other regions have moved to Gulf countries for work. As a result, countries such as the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain, Oman, and Saudi Arabia are home to residents who practice Christianity, Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and other religions.

This means that the religious makeup of a country's citizens may look different from that of everyone who lives there.

The ability of religious communities to worship publicly also differs among countries. Some governments allow churches, temples, or other places of worship under particular regulations, while other countries place greater restrictions on public religious practice. Religious freedom therefore varies across the region.

Religion has had a major influence on the societies and cultures of Iraq and the Arabian Peninsula, but it does not produce one single way of life.

Even among Muslims, practices can vary by religious tradition, country, community, family, and individual. Religious customs can also interact with local traditions that existed before Islam or developed through centuries of trade and migration.

The region's religious diversity also reminds us that majority patterns do not tell the entire story. Islam has shaped the region profoundly, but Christians, Yazidis, Mandaeans, Jews, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and members of other religious communities have also contributed to its societies.

Understanding religion in the region therefore requires looking at both patterns and differences. Religion can connect people across national borders and generations while also being practiced and understood in many different ways.