Political Upheaval After World War I
New Ideas in a Changed Europe
World War I left much of Europe in ruins—physically, economically, and politically. After years of fighting and millions of lives lost, many people lost faith in traditional governments and old systems of rule. In the 1920s and 1930s, new political ideologies gained support, offering different answers to the chaos and suffering left behind. Three of the most important ideologies to emerge were communism, fascism, and social democracy. Each offered a different vision for how society should be organized—and each had major effects on Europe’s future.
Communism: Revolution and Equality
Communism became a powerful force after the Russian Revolution of 1917, when workers and soldiers overthrew the monarchy and created a new government based on socialist ideas. Communists believed in creating a classless society where factories, land, and wealth were shared equally. They wanted to eliminate private property and overthrow capitalist systems. In the new Soviet Union, the government controlled the economy and promised to protect the working class. Many workers across Europe supported communism, hoping it would bring fairness and security. Others feared its radical ideas and saw it as a threat to traditional order.
Fascism: Strength Through Unity and Control
In contrast to communism, fascism focused on strong national identity, loyalty to the state, and powerful leadership. Fascists rejected both democracy and communism, believing that too much freedom caused weakness and division. They supported one-party rule, military power, and the idea that the nation was more important than individual rights. Fascism gained popularity in Italy under Benito Mussolini and later in Germany under Adolf Hitler. These leaders promised to restore national pride and economic strength—but also used propaganda, violence, and fear to control their people.
Social Democracy: Reform Within Democracy
A third response to postwar challenges was social democracy. Supporters of this system believed in using democratic government to reduce inequality. Unlike communists, social democrats supported private property and capitalism—but they also wanted protections for workers, such as minimum wages, unions, and social welfare programs. Social democratic parties gained power in countries like Sweden, Germany, and Britain, where voters wanted reform without revolution. This system aimed to balance freedom and fairness in a democratic society.
The End of the Ottoman Empire
While Europe was rethinking its political systems, the end of the war also brought major changes to the Middle East. The Ottoman Empire, which had ruled much of the region for centuries, collapsed after World War I. Its territory was divided by European powers through secret deals and international agreements.
One of these was the Sykes-Picot Agreement, in which Britain and France agreed to divide former Ottoman lands into spheres of influence. This led to the creation of mandates—territories governed by European countries but promised independence later. In the former Ottoman lands, Arab nationalism began to rise. Many Arab leaders and intellectuals wanted independence and self-rule. At the same time, Britain issued the Balfour Declaration, supporting a Jewish homeland in Palestine, which added tension in the region.
In modern-day Turkey, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk led a movement to resist European control and build a new nation. He ended the Ottoman sultanate and founded the Republic of Türkiye in 1923, promoting secularism, modernization, and national unity.
A World Redrawn
In the years after World War I, the world map changed and so did people’s ideas about how governments should work. In both Europe and the Middle East, new ideologies, new countries, and new conflicts emerged. The war may have ended in 1918, but its political upheaval was just beginning.